In addition, major manufacturers of light- and heavy-duty BEVs widely use cobalt-free cathodes based on lithium iron phosphate (“LFP”). Battery cathodes using less cobalt include nickel-cobalt-aluminum oxide (“NCA”) and some nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide (“NMC”) compositions. New and low-cobalt cathode chemistries can offer improved battery performance through higher energy densities. This amount is expected to decrease by 60 percent by 2035 (Figure 1, p. In 2018, lithium-ion batteries averaged 28 kilograms of cobalt per 100 kWh across all battery end uses and chemistries. Both the high price of cobalt and negative impacts of mining it motivate efforts to reduce the amount of cobalt in batteries. Today’s batteries use less cobalt per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of energy capacity, although it is still commonly used because it contributes to a battery’s energy density and chemical stability. The anode typically consists of graphite and a copper current collector.Įarly lithium-ion battery cathodes relied heavily on cobalt. Aluminum is also used as the cathode’s current collector and in packaging for the cell and module. The cathode, which accounts for roughly one-quarter of the cost of a battery, combines lithium with nickel, manganese, cobalt, aluminum, or iron.
The choice also affects other battery components, such as thermal and power management systems. The choice of materials affects important battery characteristics such as longevity, cost, and energy density (the amount of energy a certain size battery stores). 2010).ĭifferent types of lithium-ion batteries are distinguished by the metals that make up the cathode. These elements are crucial to battery performance, yet their supply is at risk, whether due to material shortages or because supplies are concentrated or processed in a single country (Bauer et al.
Of the materials used in lithium-ion battery cells, the US government deems many to be “critical” (Box 1) (DOI 2018). Combining several modules with additional packaging and thermal management systems creates the finished battery pack used in EVs. To facilitate smooth charging and discharging, battery packs consist of multiple cells bundled into modules. Electrons flow around the separator from the anode to the cathode through the device powered by the battery. When the battery is operating (discharging), lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode through an electrolyte (often a liquid) and a plastic separator that prevents the anode and cathode from coming into contact and short circuiting the cell.
Cells consist of two electrodes: the anode (the negative terminal of a battery in use) and the cathode (the positive terminal). However, implementing those strategies will require addressing a number of technical, economic, logistic, and regulatory barriers.īattery packs in EVs contain hundreds, even thousands, of individual lithium-ion batteries, typically referred to as cells and often similar in size to AA alkaline batteries. Fortunately, strategies for recycling lithium-ion batteries offer the possibility of a sustainable, long-term supply of such materials, supporting the continued deployment of electric vehicles (EVs).
Scaling up BEV manufacturing will mean increasing the production and processing of several materials used in today’s lithium-ion batteries. Important questions about the availability, recyclability, and sustainability of battery materials. However, the increased adoption of BEVs raises They have zero tailpipe emissions, and even when powered by today’s sources of electricity, their life cycle global warming emissions are significantly lower than those for vehicles fueled with gasoline or diesel (O’Dea 2019 Reichmuth 2020).
#Used batteries full#
Access to all figures and full report are available through download of the PDF.īattery electric vehicles (BEVs) are a key strategy for reducing air pollution and global warming emissions. This is a condensed, online version of the report.
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